Health Literacy Essay

This year marks one of the most significant years in the history of the United States of America. The election of 2008 will set in motion a new era for the US. With a lame duck president currently in office there is a 100 percent chance that things are going to change. One of the hot button issues during the campaign season is health care. However, in order to change health care, the United States must first be health literate. In order to do so the following should be known: the definition of health literacy, what health literacy skills are and why they are important, the history behind health literacy, and how health literacy affects the economy. First, to become health literate one must know the definition of this term. Being health literate does not mean hitting the gym everyday or trying the latest greatest fad diet. Health literacy can best be defined as â€Å"The degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process, and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions (2000). † It really is quite basic in definition but is somehow being overlooked in the United States today. The big problem is not that US citizens are making unwise choices when it comes to health care. The big problem is that US citizens do not know how to get the information about the right decisions, process a right or wrong decision or even understand basic information that relates the to health care and other health services. According to the National Network of Libraries of Medicine, health literacy includes the following: â€Å"The ability to understand instructions on prescription drug bottles, appointment slips, medical education brochures, doctor’s directions and consent forms, and the ability to negotiate complex health care systems (Glassman, 2008). † Be wary of the term literacy. Being health literate is not just having the ability to read. Health literacy â€Å"requires a complex group of reading, listening, analytical, and decision-making skills, and the ability to apply these skills to health situations (Glassman, 2008). † To know how to put health literacy to work in a country that is moving towards being centered on the consumer, the consumer must have health literacy skills. It seems as if every trip to the doctor’s office always starts with a stack of forms, questionnaires, and personal information sheets. From the outset the patient’s health literacy is being tested. Some other tasks that a patient must do are as follows: â€Å"evaluate information for credibility and accuracy, analyze risks and rewards, calculate dosages, interpret test results, and locate additional health information (Glassman, 2008). † It is easy to overlook some of these skills, but the fact remains that a big portion of people in the United States do no possess these skills. Miscalculating a prescription that cost $150 could get pretty expensive. However, in order to put health literacy skills to the test, the patient/consumer must be â€Å"visually literate, computer literate, information literate, and numerically literate (Glassman, 2008). † So where and when did this big push for the nation to be literate in health issues come from? In 1998 the American Medical Association (AMA) was the first group to advocate the belief that health illiterate patients affect medical diagnosis and treatments (AMA, 2007). The same article also stated that â€Å"poor health literacy is a stronger predictor of a person’s health than age, income, employment status, education level, and race. † Being health literate or illiterate can make you younger or older! The biggest push the make the United States a health literate nation might just come from this stat. â€Å"Individuals with limited health literacy incur medical expenses that are up to four times greater than patients with adequate literacy skills, costing the health care system billions of dollars every year in unnecessary doctor visits and hospital stays (AMA, 2007). † That is billions not millions! Billions of dollars are lost yearly do to patients missing a doctor’s visit and follow-up appointments, taking medications of schedule, and not being able to understand â€Å"take on an empty stomach† (Glassman, 2008). † Being health illiterate does not impact just the individual, but the society as a whole. Health literacy has a huge roll in the economy. The National Academy on an Aging Society estimated that additional health cost due to a low rate of health literacy was over $73 billion in 1998 dollars (NAAS, 1998). That number would be much larger ten years later. Also, those with low health literacy may have fewer visit to the doctor but end up using more hospital resources than those who are health literate (Glassman, 2008). Therefore, the more hospital resources used, the more expensive health care becomes. Each individual is not only affecting their own bank account, but they are also affecting someone else’s as well. It is quite startling that a nation as advanced as the United States could be this illiterate when it comes to an important issue like health care. Not being able to answer basic questions on a survey or medical history form is a big problem. Not being able to follow directions on a prescription bottle can end up costing billions of dollars. More importantly, not knowing how to read and follow simple directions like â€Å"take on empty stomach† can end up costing a life. Health literacy is a major issue in this country. It is an issue that has to be addressed. No longer can the United States afford to let billions and billions of dollars be spend foolishly in our health care systems. The evidence is there. Now it is time for a solution. It is time to begin educating people of all socioeconomic status of how to properly handle their medical matters. Continuing to ignore a health illiterate nation will only lead to more money being wasted and more people suffering. The time to start a positive change is now. Refusing to respond and educate people both young and old will only make United States even more broke and sick. Teaching proper health literacy will not cure any problems, but it can definitely help prevent them. References AMA Foundation, (2007, September 04). Health literacy. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from Health Literacy Web site: http://www. ama-assn. org/ama/pub/category/8115. html Glassman, Penny (2008, January 17). Health literacy. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from Health Literacy Web site: http://nnlm. gov/outreach/consumer/hlthlit. html The Center for Health Care Strategies and National Academy on an Aging Society, (1998). Fact sheet. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from National Academy on an Aging Society Web site: http://www. agingsociety. org/agingsociety/publications/fact/fact_low. html United States Department of Health and Human Services, (2000). Healthy People 2010. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from Healthy People 2010 Web site: http://www. healthypeople. gov/Document/pdf/uih/2010uih. pdf.

The Early 1800’s, The Dawn of a New Era Had Begun

By the early 1800†³s, the dawn of a new era had begun. Family and home life was changing as well as the communities around them. There was a fast growing need to produce products like clothing, quickly and efficiently. This new era brought about the mechanical industry that created factories, which could meet this need. But who would work in these factories if the men were moving west? By the 1840†³s the necessity to find workers for these factories had produced major social changes-changes which carry on until today. Before this time, most all clothing was spun and woven in the home by women. But by the 1840†³s, most was produced in factories set up in what were referred to as mill towns. Lowell Massachusetts was one such town. This change created a whole new idea of what women†s duties were, domestic or money earning laborers? Women had previously only been seen as domestic and having one goal, that of being a housewife. Their move into town to provide a workforce for the clothing factories sparked controversy in many eyes. Some people branded them â€Å"mill girls† who were doomed and unmarriable. Others thought of them as adventurers, with the fancy of bringing new fashions, books and ideas home with them. But the statistics show the average working life at a Lowell factory was only three years. Many of the women who returned home were sick and never married, because they were characterized by â€Å"she has worked in a factory†. In the factories, women were looked down upon–seen only as people who flowed in to the factory day in and day out earning their keep, spinning and weaving for the rest of their lives. They were not worthy of earning an education, and were considered socially and intellectually inept. As time went by, the bigotry began to wear away. The factories flourished with women who had wisdom and potential. One man who visited one of the mills was noted to have bowed to all the women in the mill, This sign of respect was usually reserved for ladies whom society regarded as upper class. As time wore on, â€Å"mill girls† were eventually heeded as ladies, women worth of respect. Eventually, people started noticing that the â€Å"mill girls† were spending their free time bettering themselves. Many had circles of natural selection that allowed them to cultivate and stimulate their minds. They filled the churches, libraries and lecture halls. Many of the women were highly respected by clergyman and lecturers. They testified that the women†s spirits were high along with their intellect. Inevitably, women were encouraged to finish school and reach for goals. This shows a change in how women were perceived. They were no longer lone mill workers without anything to offer society; each was an individual with purpose and worth. Though this was happening, the conditions of the factories were not changing. The Lowell factories provided boarding houses for the women, each housing up to sixty girls. To onlookers, the houses were so charming that many came to visit just to see how the women lived. The perceptions of outsiders were that the women worked and lived in great conditions. They enjoyed their jobs and were hearty and content, but this was not the case. The women often worked twelve or more hours a day and were only allowed up to an hour and forty-five minutes for meals, depending on the time of year. The factories were not properly ventilated and poorly lit. Eliza R. Hemmingway recalls that at any given time six or more women were out due to illnesses. . Miss Sarah G. Bagley submitted the first petition to the Lowell Corporation that was signed by Mr. John Quincey Adams Thayer, and eight hundred and fifty others. This petition called for improvements in the overall working conditions within the factories. These demands for better conditions lit a spark that was the beginning of what is a modern day OSHA, a systematic law for all employers and employees. The corporation acknowledged that their demands were reasonable and considerable, but believed they were not the source for solving the problems the mill workers faced. They felt that the workers in a capitalistic system had their own bargaining power and were equal to management. As a result, the Massachusetts Legislature did not pass into law the provisions outlined in the petition. Around this same time poor immigrants started pouring into the United States by the thousands. They became willing workers, not complaining about conditions as the native workers did. Could this be why the corporation did not meet the women†s needs? The immigrants would be happy to take over the jobs for less money and in the same conditions. What does this say for the corporation? Were they steering away from caring the women working in their factories, or was it just easier to use immigrants? Or maybe, they feared the switching of women†s class and roles in society? They were not ready for women of independence and means. Regardless, society now had to deal with a more independent, self-assured working class woman. No longer needed to fill the entry level, low-paying jobs in the mills, and no longer interested in going back home to be homemakers, women entered society as productive members of the workforce. This transition is still taking place today.

Physical education Essay

Introduction Recent educational changes have spurred the need for assessment within the Physical Education field. Although it has always been part of the instructional process – Plan, Teach, Evaluate -it has not received the attention of many physical educators until recently. In the past it was not necessary to use assessment techniques for several reasons. Educators were not required to provide information on student performance to anyone. Both practicality of useful instruments and time needed to complete such assessments appeared to take away from the more relevant parts of teaching. In addition, professionals in the physical education field were not required to have defined learning outcomes for their students. Today, with the increased emphasis on accountability, physical education teachers in New Hampshire must rethink the place of assessment within their programs. The newly revised NH STANDARDS for Public School Approval (Ed 306 – effective 7/1/2005) addresses assessment in physical education as part of section 306. 41. It states: In the area of physical education, the local school board shall require that each school physical education provides: Sound assessment practices in physical education that: 1. Match goals and objectives; 2. Require evaluation and synthesis of knowledge and skills; 3. Emphasize higher-order thinking skills; 4. Clearly indicate what the student is asked to do; 5. Are at an appropriate skill level according to: a. State standard; and b. The needs of the individual; 6. Have criteria that are clear to students and teachers; 7. Are engaging and relevant to students; 8. Link to ongoing instruction; 9. Provide feedback to students; 10. Provide cost-effective benefits to students; 11. Reflect real-world situations; and 12. Emphasize use of available knowledge and skills in relevant problem contexts. In addition, assessment plays a key role in Follow the Child, a recently established New Hampshire Department of Education initiative, under the leadership of Commissioner Lyonel B. Tracy. This initiative, offered to New Hampshire schools and districts, helps schools foster student aspirations to promote student success through an emphasis on personalized learning and assessment and focuses on measuring student growth through all areas of each child’s life. To become a Follow the Child designated district, the school administrative unit (SAU) must show a commitment to several beliefs including the use of continuous assessment strategies. Therefore, it is imperative that physical education teachers are knowledgeable about assessment and utilize sound practices. 6 What is Assessment? Assessment refers to the process of testing and evaluating students to determine progress towards program goals. It is an important part of any sound physical education program because it helps teachers to measure students’ current levels of ability, progress, and their own teaching  effectiveness. A quality assessment model in physical education involves: 1. formally stating the instructional objectives (cognitive, psychomotor, affective) 2. pre-assessing the students 3. measuring the achievement of objectives using valid and reliable tests during and after the delivery of appropriate instructional activities 4. evaluating student progress towards meeting the objectives 7 What are the Principles that Guide Assessment? A quality assessment model is based on three principles: 1. Establish appropriate instructional objectives using national, state, and local standards or guidelines. 2. Select/use appropriate measures to determine student progress towards meeting instructional objectives. Assessment can take many forms. Both formal and informal tools can be used. (See â€Å"What are the Approaches to Assessment? †) 3. Develop an evaluation scheme that reflects the attainment of instructional objectives. While grading is part of the evaluation scheme, it should not be the only outcome. (See â€Å"What is the Relationship between Assessment and Grading? †) 8 What Do the Components of an Effective Assessment Measure? For an assessment measure to be effective, it needs to include: 1.validity – Does it measure what it claims to measure? There needs to be agreement between what the assessment measures and the performance, skill, or behavior the assessment is designed to measure. For example, if a test is designed to measure cardiovascular endurance, one must be confident it does so. It is important to remember that validity is specific to a particular use and group. An assessment might be valid for one age group, but not valid for a different age group. 2. reliability – Does it measure consistently? A reliable assessment should obtain approximately the same results regardless of the number  of times it is given. For example, an assessment given to a group of students on one day should yield approximately the same results if it is given to the same group on another day. 3. objectivity – Does the measurement yield highly similar results when administered by others? For example, an assessment has high objectivity when two or more people can administer the same assessment to the same group and obtain approximately the same results. 4. feasibility – Is the measure straightforward and easy to set up and administer? The following administrative considerations may help one determine the feasibility of an  assessment. a) Cost: does the assessment require expensive equipment that one does not have or cannot afford to purchase? b) Time: does the assessment take too much instructional time? c) Ease of administration: Does one need assistance to administer the assessment? If so, how will these people be trained? Are the instructions easy to follow? Is the assessment reasonable in the demands that are placed on those being assessed? d) Scoring: If another person is needed to help administer the assessment, will it affect the objectivity of the scoring? (For example: A person is needed to pitch the ball to  the hitter in a softball hitting assessment. ) 5. usefulness – Can the results be used for valid educational purposes such as self-appraisal, program planning, or reporting progress? For example: A worksheet is given to a student so one can demonstrate knowledge of skills/games. The results could provide to the student an idea of how much is known about skills/games (self-appraisal), to determine where in the lesson this information should be covered (program planning), and/or as part of calculating students grades (reporting progress). 9 What Are the Purposes of Assessment? 1. Student Learning: Assessment is a way for educators to measure progress, strengths, and areas of growth. Many teachers assess their students using a pre-test, mid-term, and post- test to gauge student learning. This may take place throughout a unit or the entire school year. 2. Improvement of Teaching: Teachers use assessment to determine what is effective in their teaching practices; what is working and what needs improvement. A variety of assessment tools may be used in order to determine what types of instruction are most beneficial in meeting the needs of students. 3. Communication: Assessment should serve as a means of communication between educators, students, administrators, and parents. Parents and students often look at assessment to see WHAT is being learned, HOW progress is being measured, and the TYPE of instruction being received. Educators and administrators use assessment to evaluate teaching practices and to determine if there are gaps in the curriculum. 4. Program Evaluation: Assessment can prove a good measure of one’s program, revealing evidence of the effectiveness of that program, throughout the year, assessment can offer  direction to the program and modifications can be made to increase both student and instructional success. 5. Program Support: Consistent assessment can be used to validate one’s program. Data gained is objective and can show evidence of goals and objectives being met by both student and teacher. With clear data presented, a strong measure of program support may follow. 6. Motivation: Assessment shows progress. When improvement is shown, students feel Positive about their learning environment. Documented assessment can offer proof of growth, thus enhancing students’ motivation to perform to the best of their ability. 10 What Should be Assessed? The Three Domains of Learning Throughout a child’s development there are three domains of learning that exist in order to educate the whole child. Psychomotor, cognitive, and the affective domains give meaning to learning. These are essential in allowing a child to explore the learning environment and obtain as much information about the world as possible. The three Domains are: 1. Psychomotor- The performance component; exploring one’s environment and gaining skills throughout the process. 2. Cognitive-The knowledge component; thinking, associating experiences with learning. 3. Affective-Personal and social development. Providing children with opportunities to interact with others in order to gain a sense of themselves and those around them. Incorporation of the 3 Domains in Physical Education According to David Gallahue, in physical education the three domains are interwoven to give meaning to movement. When children understand WHY their body functions the way it does (cognitive), they can begin to attain skill competency (psychomotor) and associate positive feelings with physical activity (affective). a. Psychomotor domain -the heart of physical education is developing competent motor skill abilities. b. Cognitive domain- an understanding of movement concepts and principles that allow children to become more efficient movers and learners through movement. c. Affective domain – development of acceptable social and personal behaviors in physical activity settings that allow for a productive learning environment with students working responsibly both individually and as members of a group. Assessment of the Three Domains in Physical Education When assessing the psychomotor domain, one is measuring the development of motor skills and health related fitness. For example, at the primary level, students demonstrate skipping by  performing the skill using the step, hop pattern or at the intermediate level, students participate in the FitnessGram assessment program. When assessing the cognitive domain, one is measuring student knowledge of movement concepts, principles, strategies and tactics. For example, at the middle school level students articulate the skill pattern of the underhand throw (â€Å"ready, swing back, step, follow through†) or describe a strategy used to defend territory during an activity. 11 When assessing the affective domain, one is measuring the development of acceptable social and personal behaviors in physical activity settings. For example, at the high school level, students fill out a self reflection about their performance, complete a peer evaluation or identify, follow and, when appropriate, create safety guidelines for participation in physical activity settings. 12 What Are the Approaches to Assessments? What is Formal and Informal Assessment? Teachers can collect information using either formal or informal evaluation. Formal assessment is usually standardized. This standardization allows the teacher to interpret student performance and provides an objective way to assess learning. Informal assessment, sometimes termed alternative/authentic assessment, often relies on observation techniques. What is Traditional Assessment? The term traditional assessment is used to describe the means of gathering information on student learning through techniques such as multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, and matching questions, as well as essays. These approaches are particularly useful in assessing students’ knowledge of information, concepts, and rules. They are also appropriate for assessing students’ knowledge of the terms and processes involved in a career. Because factual knowledge of information is one important aspect of applied technology, carefully  designed multiple-choice and matching questions can enable the teacher to quickly assess student mastery of content knowledge. However, an effective assessment evaluates knowledge of facts as well as the connection to a broader body of knowledge. Proficiency in applied technology depends on the ability to know and integrate facts about all aspects of industry into useful constructs. What is Alternative Assessment? Teachers from all academic fields are now being held accountable for the performance of their students. This level of accountability requires teachers to document student learning. In addition to  traditional assessment, more physical education teachers are incorporating â€Å"real-life† learning in their classes. These alternative or authentic assessments focus on the use of what is learned in real- life settings. â€Å"Alternative assessment techniques can be applicable to using assessment as a â€Å"learning experience† that is part of the instructional process rather than something that is â€Å"done to† students (Rink, 2006). Alternative assessment takes time. The teacher must balance the need for reliable and valid information against the practical issues involved in limited program time and too many students. Yet these assessments are gaining in popularity because they tend to focus on more meaningful â€Å"real-life† learning. Authentic assessment focuses on the use of what is learned in real-life settings. Alternative assessments techniques can be used for all of the learning domains and are most applicable to using assessment as a â€Å"learning experience† that is part of the instructional process. Most alternative assessment relies heavily on the assessor making a judgment about some performance. This performance could be about a physical skill or ability, an affective or cognitive behavior. 13 What are the Different Types of Assessment that are Used in Physical Education? Many types of assessments can be used by educators to collect information and provide students with a variety of learning experiences. The following are a few types of assessments used in physical education. After each type, the approach (formal or informal) is noted in italics. . Observation is one of the most common forms of assessment used in physical education. Observational data is a useful form of assessment for the teacher to assess student performance. It is also one of the most useful self and peer assessment activities. When the students are provided a set of criteria to assess their performance or the performance of others, they are learning what is important in what you are trying to teach them and learn to focus their efforts on improvement. (Rink, 2006). An example of each assessment noted below has been placed in Appendix I. †¢ Checklist: associate with observation data; used to identify a particular behavior or characteristic of performance with established criteria. Informal †¢ Performance task: are meaningful â€Å"culminating† experiences that can be accomplished within a single instructional period. Examples would include a dance routine, warm-up routine, locomotor skill sequences, skit, role playing, and oral report. Informal †¢ Rating scale: associated with observation data; determines degree Informal †¢ Record of performance: ‘Snapshot’ of performance from daily tasks (i. e. win/loss, fitness scores, skill assessments) Formal †¢ Rubric: used to assess complex behavior; a multidimensional rating scale. Formal †¢ Student interview, survey and questionnaire: used to gather information on student thinking and feeling. Informal †¢ Student journal: are often used as a â€Å"notebook† where students are asked to reflect on their  performance/ express their feelings, perceptions and attitudes about their experiences in physical education. Informal †¢ Student log: Establish a record of participation or some other behavior or characteristic over time. Formal †¢ Student project: designed as a learning and assessment experience. Students are asked to investigate, design/construct, and present their work in some form. Formal †¢ Written test/worksheet: Is the most common form of assessment in all content areas. It is considered the best way for teachers to determine student knowledge. Formal A portfolio has not been listed above as a type of student assessment. Although it may mean many things to some, within this document a portfolio is considered a representative collection of learning over time. It should demonstrate progress and learning. Students today are part of a highly technological world. Therefore, assessments might include audio-visuals (posters, white boards, easels) and computer-assisted techniques (i. e. mind mapping, imovies, powerpoint, movement skill videos). These knowledge or performance assessments can be compiled in an electronic portfolio that would demonstrate learning over time. 14 Types of Student Assessment Used in Physical Education. There are many types of assessments that can be used by teachers to collect information. The type of assessment chosen needs to match the student learning goals. The chart on the following page is an attempt to provide several examples of both traditional and alternative assessments. The format was modified from the following resource: Hopple, C. J. (1995). Teaching for outcomes in elementary physical education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetic 15 TYPES of STUDENT ASSESSMENT Traditional Approaches Alternative Approaches Teacher Generated Student Products Written Tests/Worksheets Selected Response. Formats Limited Open-ended Formats Audio/visual Written Performance Tasks Responses selected from given alternatives Brief, written response constructed Generated for exhibition/display Written response generated Physical or cognitive behaviors Multiple-choice Open response Banner Essay, story, poem Skit / role playing True & false Short answer Photo exhibit Research paper Officiate a game Matching /association Label diagram Artwork – black & white Anecdotal Fitness assessment Corrective true & false Fill-in-the- blank Videotape Student journal Debate Concept maps Personal fitness plan Oral report. Poster Student log Instruct a lesson Powerpoint Advertisement Interview imovie Brochure Showcase Audiotape Checklist Movement sequence – dance, gymnastics, locomotor, etc. Rating Scale Warm-up routine Rubric – teacher, peer, self Game play Model of athlete (clay, styrofoam) Record of performance Newspaper Magazine construction Reflection Student project Pre-assessment inventory Student survey, interview, questionnaire Editorial 16 Who Should Assess and Who Can Assess? There are a number of potential ways to assess within physical education. In order for assessment to be successful, it must be practical. The following will identify some ideas and suggestions that can make assessment feasible, useful, and meaningful for both the learner and teacher. Assessment can be completed by the teacher, student, or peer. The more traditional model where the teacher is assessing is often not feasible from a practical perspective. However, if one of the teacher’s objectives is to plan and provide opportunities that result in student responsibility, then it appears logical to involve students in the assessment process whenever appropriate. Self Assessment: Self assessment can be used throughout the instructional process. This provides  both a quick and practical way for the teacher to collect information. Student progress can be recorded using one or more of the following tools – student journal, notebook, index cards – that are completed and submitted to the teacher. Teacher Assessment: Simple checklists, rating scales, and/or rubrics can be used by teacher to assess student performance. In addition, the use of technology in the classroom or gymnasium can be used to assess student performance and student behavior. The videotape, CD and DVD can be viewed at a later time. Peer Assessment: With clear directions from the teacher, peers can collect information that can  indicate student progress. Again, checklists, rating scales, or rubrics can provide criteria for making judgments. Peer assessment requires students to focus on the criteria, allowing them to develop observation skills. For peer assessment to be effective, the teacher needs to teach the observational process. 17 When Should Assessment Occur? ssessment should occur on a continuous basis throughout the year. Assessment used prior to instruction (pre-assessment) could provide information about the students and help establish learning objectives. Assessment used during instruction can provide feedback to both the teacher  and students. Finally, assessment at the end of instruction (post assessment) can determine if learning objectives were met and/or if changes or more work in a particular area is warranted. 1. Formative versus Summative: a. Formative Assessment is done continuously throughout the learning and instruction period. This type of assessment provides feedback that can be used to alter, fine-tune, or modify what has been done. Both teacher and student can use the information gained to improve either teaching practices or learning methods. Traditionally, this is not graded but used as a diagnostic tool. b. Summative Assessment occurs at the end of the learning unit. â€Å"The purpose of summative assessment is to measure how well students have learned key content and skills as defined by the unit’s learning goals and objectives† (http://www. state. ct. us/sde/dtl/ta/seminarseries/online_seminars/phys_ed/4. htm) 2. Pre-Assessment versus Post Assessment: a. Pre-assessment tools are used at the beginning of instruction. Results from pre- assessment are used as a basis for setting reasonable and attainable goals. This allows teachers and students to identify and work on areas that need improvement. b Post assessment tools are used at the end of the learning unit to evaluate student progress and achievement. The post assessment results can be compared to the pre assessment results to measure how well individual students have mastered content and skills and to evaluate the effectiveness of instruction. c. Some of the assessment tools may be used for both pre-assessment and post assessment. For example, the Fitnessgram can be administered in the fall (as a pre-assessment) to help establish health-related fitness goals. Then it could be given again in the spring (as a post assessment) to measure process toward established goals. 18 Where Should One Begin? Using performance tasks for assessment: A performance task is a type of performance assessment in which students physically perform the skill or desired product to be assessed. If one chooses to use performance tasks for assessment the following suggestions should be kept in mind: 1. Choose a task that fits the level and is realistic for both teacher and students. 2. To begin, only assess 1-2 specific classes until becoming familiar with the process. 3. Find performance tasks that can be used to assess outcomes from more than one unit. 4. Use performance tasks for formal and informal assessment. 5. Use assessment stations, when possible. That way one can focus attention on fewer students at a time. 6. Record the names of students who do not perform the task (usually there are fewer). 7. When planning units, specifically plan for assessment time. Do not wait until the last minute to think about assessment. Using portfolio tasks for assessment: Portfolios provide teachers with an authentic form of assessment. They can be used by teachers and students to see progress over time. Physical education teachers need to adapt the use of portfolio tasks to their unique classroom setting. Useful strategies to do this include: 1. Portfolios need to last over time. Therefore, they need to be sturdy enough to handle a variety of papers. Students can personalize them, if desired. Make sure their names (last name, first name) are written in a common, visible place on the portfolio. 2. Decide what should go into the portfolio. This could be a combination of in- class and out-f-class work. Examples might include fitness scores, skill checklists, journal logs, fitness logs, reflections, and worksheets. 3. Store the portfolios by class in a crate or box with handles. Store them in an accessible place. 4. Develop a protocol for students to use when submitting work. 5. Make sure to plan time to review the work in the portfolios. 6. Begin using portfolios with 1-2 classes. In the beginning portfolio tasks may not be necessary for every unit. 19 How Do I Manage This Thing Called Assessment? Management is crucial in implementing any assessment strategy. Establishing assessment protocols will save teachers time and effort. The first step in effective management of assessment is to develop, teach, support students in practicing assessment protocols. Scheimer (1999) stated that assessment protocols provide students with an organized method for obtaining the assessment materials (i. e., paper, pencil, or portfolio), selecting a private area in the gym to complete the assessment, and collecting the materials at the end of the assessment episode. Examples of assessment protocols include: 1. distributing assessment materials 2. collecting assessments 3. ensuring names and dates on papers 4. arranging assessment materials (when teaching back to back classes) 5. dealing with insufficient assessment materials 6. accommodating nonreaders and/or non-English speaking students 7. accommodating students with special needs The following are suggestions for assessment protocols that have been used by effective teachers,  both within the context of physical education and regular classroom teachers. Each protocol can have its drawbacks – experimentation may lead to perfection. Each protocol may need to be modified depending upon the number of students, age/grade of students and use of student aides. Distributing Assessment Materials The key to this assessment protocol is getting the students involved. A class can be divided into smaller groups (no more than 8 students per group). Each group then has a specific equipment area where the necessary assessment materials (as well as the equipment needed for that lesson) are located. Before class begins, the teacher places the necessary assessment materials (and/or equipment) in each equipment area. When it is time to work with the assessment materials (and/or equipment), students go to their group’s equipment area, select the materials (and/or equipment) needed, and return to their designated work space. Collecting Assessments The teacher uses a moveable filing cabinet containing folders with identified markings as tabs. These 25† x 15† systems hold approximately 300 folders, depending on the amount of information collected. It is the students’ responsibility to submit or remove papers from the class or personal  student folder as requested by the teacher. Within each personal folder, files can be categorized by color paper inserts. 20 Ensuring Names and Dates on Papers To keep accurate track of submitted papers, have students write their name or school code, date, and class on each paper. The teacher can fill in the information for students who are absent as this will help keep track of students who have not completed assessments. Arranging Assessment Materials When Teaching Back to Back Classes One of the easiest ways to organize materials is to color code them. Use different colored folders for each class/grade level. Place the assessment worksheets and/or record keeping sheets to be used for that class/grade in each folder. Teachers can help students learn to find the correct folder for their class and take the materials from it. Dealing with Insufficient Assessment Materials Due to the tightness of school budgets, money is often focused on equipment and curriculum rather than materials needed for assessment. However, there are ways to deal with this situation if a teacher is inventive and frugal. Paper: Use recycled paper (one side) and cutting the paper in half or quarters (elementary). Provide a notebook or white lined paper specifically for physical education (secondary). Use chalk boards/ dry erase boards with the teacher making notations on a separate sheet. Writing utensils: Often times at the end of the year, teachers give away crayons that are no longer part of a complete set. Check with the custodians who frequently have collected a bucketful of pencils and pens as they clean the buildings after school. Upper level students may be asked to provide their own pencils or if stations are used, students can share writing implements. In addition, do not be afraid to ask business or community groups for help. Getting two or three boxes of pencils and a ream of paper may be sufficient to use for assessment annually. Accommodating Nonreader and/or Non-English Speaking Students The ideal would be to have a tutor and/or translator in the gymnasium, however, not all schools budget for this. However, since visual models are a key component in helping these students, the following could be used: A. large pictures posted on the walls B. large words with phonetic break downs C. the English alphabet posted on the walls D. flash cards E. teacher/student mirroring F. peer mirroring 21 Accommodating Students with Special Needs. Each student’s Individualized Education Plan (IEP) should be reviewed for necessary accommodations. When a paraprofessional is available, he/she should guide students using a variety of specific modifications as specified in the IEP to access the curriculum and assist in assessment. Consultation with the physical education teacher is critical in this process. When a paraprofessional is not available, the physical educator should utilize the identified modifications as outlined in each student’s IEP for both program development and student assessment. These may include the use of adaptive equipment and/or peer partners for guidance to  assist the student. 22 What is Grading? Grading reports a student’s level of performance and usually includes many assessment measures. Grades are useful for evaluating individual student performance. Grading can be used to motivate students and help them understand that learning is important. Grades provide students and parents with feedback regarding progress and achievement. In addition, grades may provide insight for teachers about instructional planning and for administrative purposes. Grades are needed for student rank, credits, and promotion. 23 What is the Relationship between Assessment and Grading? Assessment is information gathered that examines what has been taught, practiced and learned. Many different assessment techniques may be used to evaluate students’ progress. Grading is a report on students’ level of performance. Goals and objectives should be set prior to assessment used for grading. The students’ grade should reflect a level of achievement compared to the objectives. Assessment reflects performance; grading attaches value to performance. 24 New Hampshire Curriculum Guidelines/Objectives Alignment with Assessment Examples . Curriculum Guideline 1: Engages in a physically active lifestyle Since Guideline 1.

Effect of Psychological Contract Violation on Organizational Essay

Effect of Psychological Contract Violation on Organizational Commitment, Trust and Turnover Intention in Private and Public Sector Indian Organizations - Essay Example Shahnawaz and Goswami (2011) basically outline the negative outcomes of psychological contract breaches on employers and employees in an organization. Epitropaki (2013: 67) describes an employment contract as a document which can control the activities of employees in an organization, and help them to realize the business goals. Such a contract details what employees are expected of by their employer and the gains that they are entitled to as payment for their effort. On the other hand, Wei and Si (2013: 544) concurs with Shahnawaz and Goswami on the definition of the less formal psychological contract as the beliefs of an individual employee as influenced by the business conditions guiding the interaction between employees and the employer. Alternatively, psychological contract can be construed to mean the perception of individual employees of their duty to their employer and their entitlements (Chiang et al 2012:81). Although, many people view the formal contract as more important to the success of an organization, Shahnawaz and Goswami’s assertion that psychological contract is a mutual commitment which plays an equally pivotal role in forging organizational commitment and the greater productivity is based on scientific evidence (Kraft & Kwantes 2013: 139; (Randmann 2013: 134). But Shahnawaz and Goswami’s argument that it is obvious for either party to fulfill their duty such contracts fails the implementation test. Notably, Zribi and Souaà ¯ (2013: 11) say the understanding of the psychological contract terms between an employee and the organization may be different because both parties have diverse interests and the practice is massively perceptual. Liang and Liu (2014: 56) also note these conflicting understandings of the mutual duties may create an understanding that the other party has reneged on the contractual terms. In addition, employees’ beliefs about of the duti es set up at the

Student induction program Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Student induction program - Case Study Example The literature on induction in the formal literature such as journals, books, and scholarly publications are not many. Perhaps this manifests a situation in which the role of induction in education is being underestimated. Nevertheless, when this research was conducted, similar efforts were initiated by other students and the findings of this study can be validated by the said studies. Is the induction program of the University of East London working well or successful' What factors are affecting its success' In particular, do gender and student age factors come into play for its success' Is the availability of the university "information pack" also playing a role for the success of the university induction program' How can we improve the induction program of the University of East London' The basic design of this research is to combine quantitative and qualitative research. The qualitative research will be useful in the assessment of success of the induction program based on beneficiary perception of satisfaction or non-satisfaction on the implementation of the program. Meanwhile, the qualitative research component of this study is meant to elicit recommendations on how the induction program can be improved. The recommendations were be elicited from the target beneficiaries of the University of East London: the students. ... The quantitative research will be implemented through a random sample of respondents. In contrast, the qualitative research will be implemented through a non-probability sample of a quota of five students from the random sample. In the latter, there is no intention to create possibilities for inference because the emphasis is to obtain insights from the target beneficiaries of the University of East London. Instruments As mentioned, two data gathering instruments were employed for the study: 1) a questionnaire for quantitative research or survey; and 2) an interview instrument for the qualitative research. The first instrument focuses on respondent profile, the impact of the induction program on the respondents, data that can indicate whether the induction program of the University of London has been successful, and on the variables that may be affecting the success of the University of East London's induction program. In contrast, the second instrument which is an instrument for qualitative research, seeks to enlist respondent insights from a quota of five respondents on how the induction program at the university can be improved. Scope and limitation While the random sampling of this study can be used for inferential statistics, inferential statistics will not be used in view of the author's limitations on time and resources. Because of such limitations, not enough sample size was obtained for greater accuracy although inferential statistics can be applied on the sample using Walpole & Myers (1999, p. 265) to make estimates on the population proportion. Using a larger sample size will even make possible the test of hypotheses on proportions (Walpole & Myers, pp. 337-388) but this is not

POLLOCK the film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

POLLOCK the film - Essay Example There are a variety of sacrifices made by Pollock’s friends, family, and colleagues. For instance, Pollock’s girlfriend and eventual wife, Lee Krasner, sacrifices her own well being and success in order to support Pollock’s painting. In addition to becoming his manager, Lee also takes care of Pollock when he is diagnosed as neurotic and continually tries to help him with his alcoholism. She essentially supports Pollock financially as well because he is not able to sell any paintings due to his inability to change his paintings for potential clients. Lee even appears to sacrifice motherhood because she knows that she must be there to care for Pollock and his mental health problems, in addition to pushing him to continue his art. Later on, she has to sacrifice her own happiness as she puts up with the affair between Pollock and Ruth Kilgman. Pollock also must make some sacrifices for his art. In the film, the audience sees Pollock struggle to sell his paintings. This is mostly due to the fact that Pollock does not appear to want to modify his paintings according to the tastes of others. Because he refuses to do this, art buyers are not purchasing his paintings. He seems to believe that his art is not as pure, or that he loses some of his artistic integrity if he gives in to the buyer’s desires. He is forced to sacrifice this type of mindset when Life magazine decides to write about him which appears to bother Pollock as he does not seem to want this added attention and seems to believe that he is a phony or a sell out for allowing Life magazine to cover him. Ultimately, he sacrifices his own career and life due to his alcoholism which ends up causing a deadly car cash. Due to the fact that so much pain and struggle surrounded Pollock’s life and career, the question of whether or not it was all worth it floats to the forefront of the discussion. Without the controversy and early death, it is likely that Pollock would not have been as

Elderly Receive Free Bus Rides Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Elderly Receive Free Bus Rides - Essay Example Elderly Receive Free Bus Rides These programs are either in operation or are going to become operational soon, the question here to be asked is why seniors throughout the world should have access to such discounts. Several policy makers have time and again given importance to the question and due to various reasons such policies related to free travelling for seniors have been created. Body Studies conducted in different areas and locations show that seniors live longer and healthy if their activity level is high, and in order to increase the quality of life of seniors it should be the first priority of policy makers to give seniors access to free transportation so they can easily move from one place to another and increase their activity level (Nussbaum 122). During the period of 2006, seniors living in the region of England were offered free of cost travelling as soon as the rush hours of weekdays used to end and throughout the weekends (BBC News 20120. This policy is under scrutiny and policy makers are thinkin g of ending the policy. According to a study conducted by Sophie Coronini-Cronberg on the senior citizens of the England, showed that people who had access to free bus passes participated highly in traveling from one end to another through means of walking, public transportation and cycling (U.K. Government Online 2012). The research further suggested that the free ride passes did not only benefit the poor in the community, it even benefited the rich within the community. The research results even showed that those individuals who were car owners participated less in active traveling activities. Active travelling has been associated with better health and exercise, people mostly around the world hate exercising or they do not get enough time to exercise. But if the use of public transport, especially busses increase they will start walking from their homes to buss stands and such travelling activities will assist them in complying with the exercises they have been recommended by phy sicians. According to a research conducted in Britain, when adults participate in active travelling such as travelling from their homes and offices to bus stands, they are able to fulfill certain portion of their recommended exercises (AlphaGalileo 2012). According to Santos those senior citizen that take part in active travelling and physical activities end up with better quality of life, have better mental fitness and are able to participate in economic activities which helps the government in keeping their expenses low as seniors work and do not require government aid (Fleischer 2002). Seniors that are mentally fit easily find jobs due to their experience, this helps them in becoming dependant on their families and their families do not have to think of them as burden. Death rate of senior citizens have even been linked with physical activity, studies show that those senior individuals who participate in physical activities are at a 12% lesser risk of loosing their lives as soon as they cross the age of 60 (Harbert 23). Before policy makers decide to cancel free bus trips and travelling for senior citizens, they should look at the costs associated with doing so. Medical expenses are on a rise, seniors need great amount of medical attention as at their age they experience various health diseases and if free bus rides

Law and ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Law and ethics - Essay Example Management failures have occurred in the past due to which policy makers were promoted to create the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. Managers are involved in the act of providing misleading (overly positive) information regarding their organization. Similar kind of activities took place before the crises of 2008 and when the real valuation of the financial products were realized, the offloading of investments took place and odds turned against the managers. Due to this change in policy, several banks increased the amount of their investments and provided huge amount of loans and the end result was that some of the major banks of US lost all their liquidity and were on the verge of going bankrupt. John C. Coffee asserts that there are three main causes of the crises of 2008, these include: Failure of gatekeepers which in this case is the rating agencies, managerial failures which in this case is that the mangers gave precedence to their own interest over the interest of their investors and lastly because the regulations were relaxed by the Securities and Exchange

Forensic Anthropology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Forensic Anthropology - Essay Example Having understood the two, it is then necessary to draw a link between the two or evaluate all the possible relationships between the two. It will also be imperative to reckon that a marriage between the two possible brings forth what is commonly termed as forensic anthropology. This paper seeks to show how biological anthropologist assist with a forensic investigation besides identification of individuals. The paper starts first by understanding what forensic is, then moves on to define anthropology and forensic anthropology then shows how anthropology can aid in forensics. The term forensic refers to the application of scientific knowledge in a bid to solve legal problems and enable the smooth running of legal proceedings (Bartol, 2004: p8). As such, any profession that uses scientific knowledge aids bin forensics and this explains the existence of such terms as forensic anthropology, forensic medicine, forensic science, forensic experts etc. Forensic comes from a Latin word "forensic" which means relating to a forum and forum in this case which according to the ancient Rome was a market place where people congregated to conduct all sorts of business as well as public affairs. As time went on, the term forensic was limited to reference of the courts of law thus entering English use in 1659 with that very meaning. Therefore, forensic refers to law problems or issues which are solved by the application of scientific knowledge. The word anthrop... Human beings and their ancestors are studied in terms of the physical characteristics, social and environmental relations and culture. Main concern of anthropology is the origin of the present homosapien's, ancestors, evolutionary development etc. As such, anthropologists study the skeletons, DNA, tools, etc of the modern man's ancestors to locate the origin of the present day behaviours and culture. Thus, the common questions asked by the anthropologists include but are not limited to: 1 What defines human beings 2 Who are the ancestors of modern human beings 3 What are the human physical traits 4 How do human beings behave 5 Why the differences and variations among the human beings 6 How has the evolutionary past human beings influenced both the culture and social organization These are just but examples of questions asked by anthropologists and have been used to offer a rough estimation of the scope of anthropology. The modern anthropology borrows extensively from both the humanities and natural sciences such as biology and chemistry. The modern anthropologists have specialized in technical subfields which have found wider applications both within and without the scope of anthropology. What is Forensic Anthropology Basically, forensic anthropology is the application of anthropology in forensics. It is simply the marriage between anthropology and forensics. Generally, forensic anthropology is the assessment of the skeletal remains of human beings on behalf of the law enforcers in a bid to establish the identity of the bones (Klepinger, 2006: p3). Anthropology is wide and is divided into linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, archaeology and physical anthropology. Of great help to forensic is the physical

Designing and implemlenting an evaluation of the quality of yur Lab Report

Designing and implemlenting an evaluation of the quality of yur clinical teaching - Lab Report Example It is also worth noting that teacher evaluation exercises should focus on teaching practices rather than on individual teachers. To focus on professionalism in the teaching industry and in individual teachers, evaluations should consider the responsiveness and the involvement of others in such exercises. The key processes or stages in a teaching evaluation exercise include planning, preparation, observation, data collection, reporting, and follow-up. Notwithstanding the approaches used in teacher evaluation, these exercises should form an integral of the larger strategy education and teacher improvement. The other important part of teacher evaluation is its being dialogical rather than hierarchical. Teacher evaluation is not a preserve of the education industry; instead, other industries such as nursing also require teacher evaluation exercises as nurses require continual training and refresher course. Evaluation of clinical teaching with regards to student learning and competency is quite instrumental in giving teachers, administrators and employers of training programs an overview of the quality of the teaching and learning practices of those involved. However, that clinical teacher should also be evaluated makes it necessary for those concerned to design and implement various teaching evaluation policies and approaches. The design and the implementation of clinical teaching evaluation tools is thus quite a crucial undertaking in nursing and other types of clinical education. This paper designs and implements a nursing teaching evaluation for the employer, detailing the approaches used in the evaluation and changes suitable for improving future nursing teaching. Nursing Teaching Evaluation and Improvement There are several reasons for which the undertaken nursing teaching evaluation was conducted. First, nursing teaching evaluation helps employers and administrators to gauge the effectiveness of teaching personnel, thus contributing to informed and wise decis ion making in clinical educational institutions. One method by which the nursing teaching evaluation was done is the use of student evaluators. It is often recommended that administrators and employers assess the evaluation tools used on their reliability, relevance and validity. In this nursing practice evaluation, the development process and psychometric testing for clinical and educational evaluation of teaching were applied. Since the students were required to fill without feeling their time was being wasted, the evaluation instruments had to be relatively short. The instruments were quite useful in meeting the reasons for which evaluation is such an important part of nursing and nursing education. The first aim of the evaluation was to determine whether the educational interventions used are effective in assisting learners to achieve the expected outcomes. Just in the same way as students are constantly assessed to determine their progress, so should nursing teachers. A five-ev aluator program, which is a rather accurate and valid evaluation approach critical in the education of competent professional nurses, was used in the nursing teaching evaluation. The evaluators included educators, students, peers, administrators and heads of programs and/or departments such as pediatric, health, administration, medical-surgical, psychiatric. However,

The communist Manifesto Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The communist Manifesto - Essay Example Marx and Engels influenced by the philosophy of Hegel, set out to change the face of the earth by calling the workers to unite to overthrow the capitalists. The Communist Manifesto was meant to provide the proletariat with required impetus for a social change. The Communists have no other interests but the proletariat. Since capitalism exploits the laborers but offers them only their subsistence wages, Communism is opposed to capitalism. The bourgeoisies' notions of freedom, culture, law, etc., are determined by their economical conditions. Communism, hence, abolishes eternal truths, religions and morality, for they are products of historical development. The core agenda is to acquire political supremacy by abolishing the private property and thereby uprooting the bourgeoisies. The proletariat, then, will centralize all instruments of production, and increase the productive forces. As class distinctions disappear, the proletarians will have an association, in which the free development of each will be the condition for the free development of all (Marx and Engels, Proletarians). Capitalism is characterized by private property, freedom of enterprise, profit motive, consumers' sovereignty, freedom of saving and investment decisions, and existence of competition, among others. Capitalist system necessarily envelops the private ownership of the means of production.

Rizal in Japan Essay Example for Free

Rizal in Japan Essay JAPAN Among the happiest moments of Rizal in his life was his sojourn in the Land of the Cherry Blossoms. He stayed in Japan for one month and a half from February 28 to April 13, 1888. He was charmed by the natural beauty of Japan, the manners of the Japanese people and the picturesque of shrines. He also fell in love with a Japanese girl, who loveliness infused joy and romance in his sorrowing heart. Morning of Tuesday, February 28, 1888, Rizal arrived at Yokohama and stayed in the Grand Hotel. The following day, he moved to Tokyo and took a room at the Tokyo Hotel where he stayed from March 2 to 7. He was impressed by the city of Tokyo. After his arrival in Tokyo, Rizal was visited by Juan Perez caballero, secretary of Spanish Legation. The latter invited him to live at the Spanish Legation. Rizal knew that this was the Spanish government’s way of monitoring Rizal but he accepted anyways. On March 7, he moved out of Tokyo Hotel and lived at the Spanish Legation. He and Perez Caballero became good friends and described him as a young, fine and an excellent writer. During his first day in Tokyo, Rizal could talk the Japanese language. He had a hard time for shopping for he could not be understood and children laughed at him. With his situation, Rizal decided to study the Japanese language. He was able to speak within a few days. At Japan he studied the Japanese drama, arts, music, and judo. He also visited museums, libraries, art galleries, and shrines. He visited Meguro, Nikko, Hakone, Miyanoshita, and the charming villages of Japan. During one time, Rizal went to the park and heard the Tokyo band playing a classical work of Strauss. He was impressed by the great performances of the Western music. He thought to himself how admirable their renditions are and ondered how they have assimilated the modern European music to the extent of playing the beautiful masterpieces of the European composers so well. The band stopped playing and to his surprised they were speaking

Effect of Technology on De-Skilling

Effect of Technology on De-Skilling Critically assess the contention that the introduction of new technologies into an organisation inevitably leads to de-skilling? As technology becomes ever more prominent in working practices the de-skilling debate is becoming more crucial. The following arguments will look at the effects of new technology with regard to de-skilling from the social deterministic point of view, particularly within the craft and service industries. The social deterministic view is that technology has no impact whatsoever on an organisation, apart from the strategic choices made by those who control the organisation. Marxists believe that the introduction of new technology has negative social connotations, arguing that technology is introduced by management with the sole intention of controlling and de-skilling labour. This perspective has been adopted by Braverman. Managerialists however, favour the positive social impacts of technology, believing it is management choices that determine the effects that technology has. Bravermans (1974) de-skilling thesis, based on Marxist theories, focused on the Taylorist aspects of breaking down complex skilled work into simple unskilled tasks. This enabled the introduction of technology to replace workers. Braverman also theorised that the introduction of new technology into the workplace, was carried out with the intention of replacing workers or making them work faster, as in the case of Fords production line assembly. Braverman argued that together, these were the two principal factors which led to the degradation and de-skilling of work. Braverman (1974:171) states, The unity of thought and action, conception and execution, hand and mind, which capitalism threatened from its beginnings, is now attacked by a systematic dissolution employing all the resources of science and the various engineering disciplines based upon it Braverman argues that the introduction of capitalist equipment is introduced with the intention of de-skilling workers by simplifying task s in a Tayloristic manner, or by simply replacing workers roles with technology. Much of Bravermans theory was based upon his own personal experience as a sheet metal worker, and subsequently an office worker. Bravermans de-skilling theory is associated mainly with the craft and service style proletariat industries. However, skills today can be perceived as something very different to skills in the 19th century. Certainly the jobs today differ greatly from those in the past. Barron and Robinson (2007) use the more recent example of the catering industry. New technology has enabled the outsourcing of production, provisions and labour. In essence this has lead to the de-skilling of catering workers, through the removal of many of their tasks. For example, chefs in many of the hospitality industry sectors are no longer allowed to demonstrate individuality and creative flair, but instead produce a standardised product. . Standardisation, or industrialisation, in foodservice, aims to guarantee consistent output while controlling the production process. Typically, this involves the replacement of skill with technology. (Barron and Robinson, 2007). Here the Tayloristic aspects of Bravermans de-skilling thesis are evident as the production process is broken down into simple controlled tasks, whereby new technology can replace workers. This process may be even more evident in multi-national corporations, where the same standard of product and service is expected worldwide. The Tayloristic principles adopted by many fast food restaurants, particularly noticeable in McDonalds, have led to repetitive and un-skilled tasks (Ritzer:2004). Ritzer argues that many of these have been made possible by developments in technology. Bravermans theory is demonstrated perfectly here. A Tayloristic management style coupled with the introduction of new technology has led to the simplification of jobs and ultimately their de-skilling. Ritzer also examined how the principles implemented in McDonalds were becoming more apparent in other sectors of society, such as call centres, supermarkets and even hospitals. The development of technology alongside Tayloristic management principles has meant it is possible for companies to outsource call centres, from Western European and American countries to India and other developing third world countries. Marxist theorists view the introduction of capital as a way for managers and companies to control and de-skill labour by reducing bargaining power and use value (Corbett:2009). The outsourcing of call centres is removing jobs from employees in Western Europe and America. Employees and knowledge are replaced by technology, so diminishing the bargaining power of the labour force. Outsourcing also employs lower skilled labour which translates to reduced wages and increased profits. Hence, the capital introduced has been employed to control and de-skill workers. Marxists have a radical perspective of how workers should accept the means and ends of a firm, arguing that workers should resist against the firm. They argue that the introduction of capital is exploiting workers as a higher value product is created, but wages are generally not increased (Roberts:2009). Profit made by workers is disproportionately divided between employees, managers and owners and as such a conflict of interest arises (Roberts:2009). Bravermans hypothesis and Marxists views on social determinism are not without detractors or limitations. The social -deterministic managerialist perspective of new technology holds the view that technology has no impact whatsoever on de-skilling. The decisions to de-grade or up-grade the skill of workers are the strategic choices of those who control the organisation. This perspective is supported by the New Technology Power Loop, which demonstrates that the design and choice of new technology, that is the strategic choices of management, can shape the control of a workforce. This in turn defines the level of expertise needed for implementation. The social-deterministic managerialist perspective holds the view that the expertise of the workforce has an influence over the design and choice of the technology at the beginning of the loop. Looking back to the example Barron and Robinson use of the hospitality industry it can be said that it is managements decision to standardise product s and menus through the simplification and de-skilling of jobs and the subsequent introduction of new technology. Wood (1987) considers the decisions of management regarding the introduction of technology, Certain tasks may be de-skilled in content because of technological changes, yet this may not amount to the de-skilling of any particular individual. Unskilled men may be allocated to these jobs, which for the purpose of argument may require a higher level of skill than they previously exercised, and skilled men who occupied the job prior to the change might be moved to superior skilled jobs, for example, the maintenance of new technology. Here Wood argues that, with the right job reorganisation technology can lead to the upgrading of skill. Atwell (1987) examines the work of data entry clerks in an insurance company. These are relatively unskilled workers who are able to enter the insurance claims onto the system and then pass them onto the examiner to process. In this example the examiners job is upgraded as the lower skilled tasks have been removed. The data entry clerks have also gained ne w skills as the introduction of technology has enabled them to begin entering insurance claims, a more highly skilled task than they were previously completing. The de-skilling effect, which the introduction of new technology can bring, can be revoked by managements strategic choices. The introduction of new technology, and the de-skilling effect it may or may not have, cannot be fully divorced from the context in which it occurs. The social-deterministic model also supports the theory that the successful introduction of new technology can be reliant on the tacit knowledge and skills of employees, as the choice of technology made by managers is affected by the expertise of employees. Wilkinson (1982) uses the example of the optical lens manufacturer. When new technology was introduced, the highly skilled staff were retained in order to exploit their knowledge and experience of the production processes. This indicates that not all skills can be degraded with the replacement of workers with technology. Jones and Wood (1984) also argue the importance of existing working knowledge and tacit skills to the effective implementation of new technology. As a result, it is impossible to say that new technology completely de-grades workers skill as the tacit knowledge that many have would still be regarded as a skill. Furthermore, the social-deterministic technology power loop model suggests that the tacit knowledge is ne cessary for successful introduction of new technology. Although some aspects of a workers job may have been de-skilled the worker has the ability to enrich their job with other tasks, perhaps more complex than their prior job, thus wholly up-skilling their job. Managerialists support the social -determinism theory and talk of technology as enabling organisational change and improvements (Corbett, 2009) Fincham and Rhodes (2005 need to check whether this is a direct quote and add page number) stress that technological development should be seen as a positive force, as part of the progressive elimination of alienating working conditions and their replacement with work which is more socially integrating is happening more or less as part of industrial evolution. In the instance of outsourcing, although the introduction of new technology is initially de-skilling, it is removing the lower skilled jobs from the economy and making way for more highly skilled jobs to be created as part of the economic development. Therefore, although in the short term technology has increased job mobility by providing temporary job cuts, it can have positive effects, such as en-skilling, as workers learn new trades. New technology may well have had an effect on the increasing number of career changes, but if this is leading to workers gaining new skills in new careers then surely it is re-skilling (the growth of wholly new skills) in the long term. Littler (1982, 1990) and Littler and Salaman (1982) critiqued Bravemans work arguing that if industrial capitalism itself can create new skills there can be no simple de-skilling process Fincham and Rhodes (2005:396). The managerialist perspective holds the view that, technology has no impact on people or performance in an organisation independent of those who would use it and the responses of those who have to operate it (Jones, 1982:199). This suggests that the introduction of technology has no impact on a firm, unless a resistance against technology is made by those who have to use it or operate it. Managerialists have a unitarist perspective on workers co-operation with management decisions. They believe that management should be able to make strategic choices that benefit the firm and that will have the desired economic outcome. Workers, from this perspective are required to co-operate with the means and ends of the firm as management will have the workers best interests at heart. The means of a firm relates to how work is organised, and the ends, the creation of private profit (Roberts:2009). In relation to the introduction of new technology, the managerialist view is that workers should co- operate with the strategic choices made by firms. It can however, be said that it is un-realistic to presume that managers always have employees best interests at heart. From this point of view a Marxist approach can be adopted, holding a negative opinion of the social impact of technology. They believe that management introduce capital with the sole intention of control and de-gradation of working practices and skill. Thus to conclude, the managerialist social-deterministic view that technology can have a positive social impact on working practices, disproves the contention that the introduction of technologies inevitably leads to de-skilling. Managements strategic choices, regarding job re-organisation, job numbers, and the type of technology employed, will always have an effect on the level of de-skilling which occurs. Subsequently, the level of de-skilling cannot be divorced from the context in which it occurs. Many factors can revoke the level of de-skilling, be it the tacit knowledge of existing employees or managements re-organisation of job roles once technology has been introduced. Furthermore, managerialists hold a unitarist perspective of how workers should re-act to change. The underlying belief that managers have workers best interests at heart would encourage employees co-operation with the means and ends of a firm. In addition, managerialists view the introduction of technology as a method of enabling change and economic development within an organisation, and should be viewed as a positive force.

The importance of information systems

The importance of information systems 1. Executive Summary In business world there is no substitute for right information at right time. It is evident that in last couple of decades attempts has been made to develop systems which make information more precise, readily available and easily accessible throughout the organisation. The development and use of information systems is a modern trend which is primarily concerned with the collection, process and dissimilation of useful information that directs an organisation for better planning, better decision making and ultimately the better results. Information systems and information management is a vast subject. In order to discuss the importance of information systems for an organization, the fundamental concepts like what is information, how it can be managed must be acknowledged. In this essay there will be brief introductions of these fundamental concepts and then there will be a case study of Volvos Knowledge Management System, the VPS which highlight the importance of information system and information management in an organization. Furthermore, it is not always without a hitch to adopt and appreciate a new concept and information systems are no different. There are some issues and problems in installing and using such systems which again vary one organisation to another. This essay will also touch upon those difficulties as well. 2. The concept of information in Organization The world information has different usage in different contexts but in organizational context it becomes more complex and difficult to comprehend. Zorkoczy (1981) defines information â€Å"as the meaning that a human expresses by, or extracts from, representations of facts and ideas, by means of the known conventions of the representations used†. On the other hand in organizational context, Stonecash (1981) defines information by stating that â€Å"information is simply symbols (data, text, images, voices, etc.) that convey meaning through their relative ordering, timing, shape, context, etc. information is the raw material for making decisions for creating knowledge and fuelling the modern organization†. In organizational context, information becomes more like a basic resource similar to men, material and money. Information is the binding element that holds an organization together. On the contrary, since it is intangible, information is quite different for physical resources and is often difficult to interpret and utilize in efficiently in order to achieve desirable outcomes from the oragnisation. Nevertheless, it is an integral part of organization and should be properly managed to achieve goals and objectives of the organization (W.B. Adeoti-Adekeye, 1997). Hence, it is importance to acknowledge the importance of information in the organizational performance. 3. Information Management in Organizations Many scholars have recognized the fact that right information and its flow with in the organization can drastically improve the performance and achieve stipulated objectives with ease. But at the same time it is important to note that there is no point of having information which is not relevant to the organisaton. This is the point where information management comes in to play. The prime objective of information management is to make relevant information readily available for the organisation in precise and comprehensible format. Langemo,( 1980) has defined Information management as the â€Å"organization-wide capability of creating, maintaining, retrieving and making immediately available the right information, in the right place, at the right time, in hands of the right people, at the lowest cost, in the best media, for use in decision making.† Also Best (1988) defines information management as â€Å"the economic, efficient and effective co-ordination of the production, control, storage and retrieval and dissemination of information from external and internal sources, in order to improve the performance of the organization.† 4. The concept of Information Systems Ever since its invention, computers are becoming integral part of humans and humans are becoming more and more dependent on the services offered by them. In words of W.B Adeoti-Adekeye (1997)â€Å"the advancements in computer technology have escalated mans desire to obtain computer assistance in solving daily chores and more complex problems: problems which were considered solely in the domain of mans intuitive and judgmental processes, particularly in organizations, a few years ago. Therefore, information systems are becoming area of interest in progressive and dynamic organizations. The need to obtain access conveniently, quickly and economically makes it imperative to devise procedures for the creation, management and utilization of databases in organizations.† Duff and Assad (1980), has defined the information system as â€Å"a collection of people, procedures, a base of data and (sometimes) hardware and software that collects, processes, stores and communicates data for transaction processing at operational level and information to support Management decision making.† In general terms, Information Systems can be defined as a set of interrelated components which accept data or information (meaningful data) as a raw material store and then process it to generates information as a product to assist and support in decision making and controlling activities of the organization. The Information System contains information about the organization and its surrounding environment as well. The surrounding environment includes customers, supplies, competitors and other stakeholders of the organization. The basic three activities input, processing and output generate the meaningful information that organization need. There is another essential element of system known as feedback. It is output returned to appropriate authorities in the organization to evaluate input (Laudon and Laudon 2006 9th Ed.). It can be represented in figure as follows; through one or more transmutation processes It comprises the following functional elements which relate to the organization and its environment 5. Importance of Information System in Organizations Managers must have relevant information that increases their knowledge of internal processes and external business environment. This knowledge reduces the degree of uncertainty and makes managerial decisions more rational and practical. Without relevant information most of the decisions made by managers will be like trial and errors, which in turns decrease the efficiency and profitability and increase the uncertainty with in the organization. The main benefits if an information system can be discussed as follows: 1 Economic Importance: Even though the cost of installation and maintenance of an information system quite high (depends upon kind of system) in the beginning, but in due course the costs drops and appears fair deal when compared to kinds of benefits enjoyed with the help of it. Also with the passage of time cost of information systems tends to decrease, whereas, costs of its substitutes (for instance labour) has been historically tends to rise (Laudon, 1990). Furthermore, information systems use networks, which help an organization to reduce the transaction costs, by making it worthwhile for organization to contract external suppliers instead of using internal resources. For instance, the Chrysler Corporation reduces costs by obtaining more than 70% of its parts from other supplier by using computer links ( Laudon and Laudon, 9th Ed. ). 2. Information Systems Improve Performance: Information Systems are designed to improve the overall efficiency and effectiveness of a process. The information systems speed up the process and reduce the time by removing non-value adding steps in the operation. For instance, Citibank developed the Automatic Teller Machines and Bank Debit Cards in 1977( Laudon and Laudon 9th Ed.). It made financial transactions easy and was a huge success. Further, banks continued to innovate and these days with the help of reliable and secure information systems from TEMENOS, Infosys, Oracle etc, most of the customer can do majority of transaction from their home computer or even from mobile telephone. Moreover, information systems provide real time information which reduces the scope of errors, hence, increases the quality of the output of the process. 3. Importance in Decision Making: Information Systems provides the tools for managers enabling them to monitor, plan and forecast with more precision and speed then ever before. They also enable managers to respond more rapidly and adapt swiftly to the fast changing business environment. The Decision Support Systems can significantly improve results both on quantitative and qualitative fronts. For instance, there are around 142 million employees working in United States generating $12.2 trillion of Gross Domestic Products. If the decision making quality of these employees could be improved by just 1% in a year the GDP might be expand substantially. â€Å"This implies for any organization the ability of manager or employees to make right decision at right time with the help of right information can have extraordinary business value† ( Laudon and Laudon 9th Ed.). 4. Organizational Behavior Change: Behavioral researches illustrate that information systems facilitate flattening of hierarchies by broadening the distribution of information to empower lower-level employees. It pushes the decision making rights to the lower level in the organization as the lower level employees receives the information they need to make decisions eliminating the need of middle managers(Laudon and Laudon 9th Ed.). This also leads to the reduction is the administrative costs of the organisation. For example, after installing ERP system Knust-SBO Precision Machining1 of Texas, reduced the administrative staff by 50% and at the same time improved the accuracy of on -time deliveries from56.5% to 95%. 6. Case Study Illustration The efficient performance of an organization is dependent very much on the performance of the internal resources of organization and their synchronization with external environment. To illustrate the use and importance of a management information system in organizational performance the following example of Volvo from Managing Knowledge in MNCs-The case of the knowledge management initiative in the Volvo Group by Sona Gevorgyan and Boban Ivanovski (2009) will demonstrate that how Volvo achieved superior performances by deploying their Knowledge management system. 6.1 Volvo Group and Knowledge Management The Volvo Group is one of the leaders in its industry with production facilities in 19 and sales in more than 180 countries. In 2008 it employed more than 90,000 employees worldwide majority located in Sweden, France, USA, Japan, Brazil, China, and South Korea. The industry in which Volvo Group operates is highly technology driven and knowledge intensive. Its product range comprises construction equipment, trucks and buses, aircraft engine components, drive system for marine and industrial applications. Since it operates globally the Group is comprised of numerous subsidiaries, known as product related Business Areas (BA) and supporting Business Units (BU). The major function of Business area is to manufactures products, whereas Business Units are responsible for procurement, product plannings and financial aspects of the business. As the Group continued to grow, it recognized that the diversity that the subsidiaries represent could serve as opportunity to utilize all the knowledge within the Volvo Group. The group acknowledged need of the global Knowledge Management System which could help in eliminating waste of resources in terms of recreating knowledge in one subsidiary, while already possessing it in another. Furthermore, such initiative could potentially serve as means of discovering new synergies in the Group that may lead to smooth and efficient operation of the Groups activities. Hence, the Volvo Production System Academy was launched in 2008, aiming to undertake and support such a common group Knowledge Management initiative ( Gevorgyan Ivanovski ,2009). Knowledge Management Systems are designed to store and process the knowledge available in organizations (Wickramasinghe, 2003), and simultaneously support contextualized application of that knowledge (Maier, 2004). Workers are meant to use this technology in sharing information about past experiences and making sense of this information, while performing their tasks (Wickramasinghe, 2003). Volvo Production System Academy (VPSA) is the centre for research, development and innovation in the Volvo Group. The Academy is meant to represents a central research and development unit which provides the fundamentals for the KM initiatives. It developed the Knowledge Management System for the Group, the Volvo Production System. The assumption is that operational excellence, sustainable profitability and customer satisfaction is more likely to achieve if the workers operate in accordance with the VPS guidelines. The VPS model is described in detail through internal documents known as Reference Material, stored in central database and provided through the VPSA Intranet portal. The database and the Intranet portal on which the information from the database is available, represents the core of the KMS provided by VPSA. The ‘good example of VPS model is an essential part of the feedback and learning aspect of the model. It is represents a visual illustration of exceptional execution of a specific module described in the VPS model, this acts as a communication tool to encourage employees to repeat the desirable behavior. Good examples from various factories are stored in the central database in addition to the principles, and available on the Intranet portal. The good examples are either submitted by the factories and then quality-proofed by VPSA, or spotted in the assessments that VPSA conducts. By sharing them through the Intranet portal, good examples are meant to serve factories from different subsidiaries to locally implement the VPS modules by exploiting mutual synergies and learning from each others knowledge and experiences.( Gevorgyan Ivanovski ,2009) Discussion The Knowledge Management Systems are one of the most complex information systems. The Volvo Group has realized that their product and services are not limited to physical resources but also on the intangible assets i.e. knowledge. Since it operates globally and most of its business unit are geographically, demographically and culturally dispersed, therefore it was utterly important for the Group to synchronies its knowledge and make it available wherever and whenever it is needed to support the business processes and managerial decisions. The Group achieved it with the help of an information system, the Volvo Production System. However, installing an information system does not automatically result in success, unless continuous participation of all individual workers in processes is ensured. In this case workers have struggled initially to cope up with the changes the system brought in, but the strong organizational culture motivated them to get involved in the process. Problems with Information Systems There might be different reasons, but despite of many success stories there are examples of great failure of implementing information systems in organizations. For instance (web resource1); Hershey Foods The leading chocolate manufacturer in United States accounted 19 % drop in earnings was caused by an incompetent SAP ERP installation that caused distribution disorder during one of its most profitable seasons.   FoxMeyer Drug s The pharmaceutical distribution company was forced to declare bankruptcy after an unsuccessful ERP implementation. NASA -. The ERP system was not able to close year-end books on a Cal Tech contract which results in generation of inaccurate financial reports. Bang and Olufsen In 1999, the Danish Hi-Fi audio- video maker claimed that SAP systems has damaged relation with its retailers It is often argued that most of the issues in ERP systems disasters were not technical but were mainly related to employee and organizational culture of the firm. Many of the failures can be attributed to poor managerial practice in the form of inadequate training (Pang 2001). The resistance to change from with in the organization, lack of high flexibility in terms of customization of information system and inadequate IS implementation strategy may be considered as the major factors for such a drastic failure of the information systems in certain cases. Conclusion It is important to note that information management and information systems are the means not the end of the process. Both are the powerful tools in the hand of management, which when deployed appropriately can bring dramatic change in the way an organization perform and achieve its objectives. Appropriate utilization of information systems benefits both the organization and its employees and its stakeholders. But when misapplied, they can waste tremendous amounts of time, effort, and money. To accomplish successful information management and reduce the chances of failure in future, an information system must be designed and operated with due regard to organizational culture as well as technological factors. There should be an equal contribution from both the business management and the information professionals while designing and implementing a new information system. There is no doubt that better exchange of thoughts between organizational management and information professionals has the potential to develop information systems which will entirely change the outlook how we run business today. References; Best, D.P. (1988), â€Å"The future of information management†, International Journal of Information Management, Vol. 8 No. 1, March, pp. 13-24. Duff, W.M. and Asad, M.C. (1980), Information Management: An Executive Approach, Oxford University Press, London, p. 243 Langemo, M. (1980), â€Å"Records management/word processing a needed team effort†, Records Management Quarterly, Vol. 14 No. 4, pp. 10-14. Maier, R. (2004). Knowledge management systems: information and communication technologies for knowledge management. Zugl.: Regensburg, Univ., Habil.-Schr., 2001. Pang , L. Managers Guide to Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems information Systems Control Journal, Volume 4, 2001 Sona Gevorgyan and Boban Ivanovski (2009) Managing Knowledge in MNCs-The case of the knowledge management initiative in the Volvo Group Stonecash, J.C. (1981), â€Å"The IRM showdown†, Infosystem, Vol. 28 No. 10, pp. 42-8. W.B. Adeoti-Adekeye (1997) â€Å"The importance of management information systems† Library Review, Vol. 46 No. 5, page 318-327. MCB University Press, 0024-2535. Wickramasinghe, Nilmini (2003). â€Å"Do We Practice What We Preach? Are KnowledgeManagement Systems in Practice Truly Reflective of Knowledge Management Systems in Theory?†. Business Process Management Journal, 9(3): 295-316. Zoikoczy, P. (1981), Information Technology: An Introduction, Pitman, London, p. 157 1The New ERP System Halves the Administrative Staff, Modern Machine Shop, Feb2002, Vol. 74, p142

The Most Common Types of Leukemia in Adults Essay -- health, diseases

In the United States, there was an estimated 310,046 people are living with or are in remission from Leukemia according to statistics gathered in 2013. Incidence rates for all types of leukemia developing in males are higher than in females; males are expected to account for approximately 57 percent of the new cases of leukemia. In all races or ethnicities, it is the tenth most frequently occurring type of cancer. However, incidence is highest among non-Hispanic whites, (13,600) while incidence is lowest among Asian and Pacific Islander populations (7,400) and American Indian and Alaska Native populations (7,300). In 2013, leukemia was diagnosed in approximately twelve times as many adults (43,749) as children and adolescents younger than 15 years (3,605). The median age at diagnosis is sixty-six years old and the median for death caused by the disease is seventy-five years old. The most common types of leukemia in adults are Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) and Chronic Lymphocytic Leuke mia (ACL). The most common type of leukemia in children and adolescents younger than 20 years is Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL). In 2010, ALL was accountable for 74 percent of the new leukemia cases in children and adolescents younger than 20 years. Most cases of Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) occur in adults. In 2010, CML was accountable for about 3.3 percent of new cases of leukemia in children and adolescents younger than twenty years. Almost two percent of all cases of CML are in adolescents, ages 15 to 19 years. There was a notable improvement in survival from 1975 to 2008. Divided into five year periods, there was only a 34% survival rate from 1975 to 1977 but the survival rate rose to 58% from 2002 to 2008, the difference being statistical... ...Finke, J., †¦ Rocha, V. (2012). Bone marrow or peripheral blood stem cell transplantation from unrelated donors in adult patients with acute myeloid leukaemia, an Acute Leukaemia Working Party analysis in 2262 patients. Journal of Internal Medicine, 272, 472–83. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2012.02547.x Siegel, R., Naishadham, D., & Jemal, A. (2013). Cancer Statistics, 2013. CA Cancer J Clin, 63, 11–30. doi:10.3322/caac.21166. Wang, J. C. Y., & Dick, J. E. (2005). Cancer stem cells: lessons from leukemia. Trends in Cell Biology, 15, 494–501. doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2005.07.004 Weber, C. (2013). Leukaemia: how can stem cells help? EuroStemCell. Retrieved February 14, 2014, from http://www.eurostemcell.org/factsheet/leukaemia-how-can-stem-cells-help Wu, L. (2012). Leukemias. Medscape. Retrieved February 14, 2014, from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1201870-overview